A holistic study on fluoride-contaminated groundwater models and its widespread effects in healthcare and irrigation

Abstract

Groundwater is a key resource in the world. Its importance is often undermined, despite the various applications which include irrigation, drinking, sanitation, and industrial uses. One of the contaminants of groundwater is fluoride or the fluorine ion. Fluoride is a common pollutant of water, carrying potential benefits and costs to various sectors. Fluoride contamination of groundwater can impact humans, animals, healthcare, and the agricultural sector in direct or indirect ways. This paper aims to establish the definition of fluoride contamination of groundwater and simultaneously provide an outline of a few common sources that may cause fluoride contamination. Furthermore, this study will lay out the impacts of fluoride-contaminated groundwater on two sectors: healthcare and agriculture/irrigation. This study will also summarize various other research projects conducted across the world, which deliver promising evidence to support the points made throughout the paper. In addition to a detailed analysis of the impacts of fluoride on the healthcare and agricultural sector, this study also evaluates few other challenges which this issue poses and how to overcome them in the near future. A summation of deflouridation techniques is included, along with the future scope pertaining to the field of fluoride contamination. Another objective of the study is to spread awareness about the various health impacts that fluoride contamination poses and encourages consumption of fluoride in accordance with the set limit of 0.5–1.5 mg/L. The motivation behind writing this review is to compile and document various researches, along with an address on this prevalent issue to minimize the detrimental impacts and potential health risks on the society. The results of this study help to minimize risks in the future and encourage scientists to come up with mitigation strategies to ensure a safer environment.

Data Availability

All relevant data and material are presented in the main paper.

*Original abstract online at https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs11356-021-16367-z

References

Adeyeye OA, Xiao C, Zhang Z, Yawe AS, Liang X (2021) Groundwater fluoride chemistry and health risk assessment of multi-aquifers in Jilin Qianan, Northeastern China. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 211:111926. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2021.111926

CAS Article Google Scholar
Adimalla N (2019) Groundwater quality for drinking and irrigation purposes and potential health risks assessment: a case study from semi-arid region of South India. Exp Health 11(2):109–123. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12403-018-0288-8

CAS Article Google Scholar
Adimalla N, Li P, Qian H (2019a) Evaluation of groundwater contamination for fluoride and nitrate in semi-arid region of Nirmal Province, South India: a special emphasis on human health risk assessment (HHRA). Hum Ecol Risk Assess 25(5):1107–1124. https://doi.org/10.1080/10807039.2018.1460579

CAS Article Google Scholar
Adimalla N, Venkatayogi S, Das SVG (2019b) Assessment of fluoride contamination and distribution: a case study from a rural part of Andhra Pradesh, India. Appl Water Sci 9:94. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13201-019-0968-y

CAS Article Google Scholar
Alfredo KA, Lawler DF, Katz LE (2014) Fluoride contamination in the Bongo District of Ghana, West Africa: geogenic contamination and cultural complexities. Water Int 39(4):486–503. https://doi.org/10.1080/02508060.2014.926234

Article Google Scholar
Alhababy AM, Al-Rajab AJ (2015) Groundwater quality assessment in Jazan region, Saudi Arabia. Curr World Environ 10:22–28

Article Google Scholar
Ali S, Thakur Sachin K, Sarkar A, Shekhar S (2016) Worldwide contamination of water by fluoride. Environmental Chemistry Letters 14(3):291–315. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10311-016-0563-5
Anshumali BK (2014) Fluoride in agricultural soil: a review on its sources and toxicity to plants. Global Sustain Transitions: Impacts and Innovations 3:29e37

Google Scholar
Aravinthasamy P, Karunanidhi D, Subramani T, Anand B, Priyadarsi DR, Srinivasamoorthy K (2019) Fluoride contamination in groundwater of the Shanmuganadhi River Basin (south India) and its association with other chemical constituents using geographical information system and multivariate statistics. Geochemistry, S0009281919300510. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemer.2019.125555
Ayoob S, Gupta AK (2006) Fluoride in drinking water: a review on the status and stress effects. Crit Rev Environ Sci Technol 36(6):433–487

CAS Article Google Scholar
Ayoob S, Gupta AK, Bhat VT (2008) A conceptual overview on sustainable technologies for the defluoridation of drinking water. Crit Rev Environ Sci Technol 38:6,401–6,470

Article Google Scholar
Baba A, Tayfur G (2011) Groundwater contamination and its effect on health in Turkey. Environ Monit Assess 183(1–4):77–94. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-011-1907-z

CAS Article Google Scholar
Banerjee A, Roychoudhury A, Ghosh P (2019) Differential fluoride uptake induces variable physiological damage in a non-aromatic and an aromatic indica rice cultivar. Plant Physiol Biochem 142:143–150. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.plaphy.2019.06.034

CAS Article Google Scholar
Bhattacharya P, Adhikari S, Samal AC, Das R, Dey D, Deb A, Ahmed S, Hussein J, De A, Das A, Joardar M, Panigrahi AK, Roychowdhury T, Santra SC (2020) Health risk assessment of co-occurrence of toxic fluoride and arsenic in groundwater of Dharmanagar region, North Tripura (India). Groundw Sustain Dev 11:100430. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gsd.2020.100430

Article Google Scholar
Brands E, Rajagopal R, Eleswarapu U, & Li, P. (2017). Groundwater. In International encyclopedia of geography: people, the earth, environment and technology (Issue October 2018, pp. 1–17). John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118786352.wbieg0677
Bretzler A, Johnson CA (2015) The geogenic contamination handbook: addressing arsenic and fluoride in drinking water. Appl Geochem 63:642–646. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeochem.2015.08.016

CAS Article Google Scholar
Brindha K, & Elango L (2011). Fluoride in groundwater: causes, implications and mitigation measures. Fluoride: properties, applications and environmental management, July, 113–136.
Budisa N, Kubyshkin V, Schulze-Makuch D (2014) Fluorine-Rich Planetary Environments as Possible Habitats for Life. Life 4(3):374–385. https://doi.org/10.3390/life4030374
Bustingorri C, Lavado RS (2014) Soybean as affected by high concentrations of arsenic and fluoride in irrigation water in controlled conditions. Agric Water Manag 144:134–139. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2014.06.004

Article Google Scholar
Choudhary S, Rani M, Devika OS, Patra A (2019) Impact of fluoride on agriculture: a review on it’s sources, toxicity in plants and mitigation strategies. Int J Chem Stud 7(2):1675–1680

CAS Google Scholar
Das SK, Das RK (2020) Investigation on fluoride concentration in ground water by hydrochemical pathway. Int J Environ Anal Chem 00(00):1–17. https://doi.org/10.1080/03067319.2019.1694672

CAS Article Google Scholar
Darchen A, Sivasankar V, Chaabane T, Prabhakaran M (2016) Methods of Defluoridation: Adsorption and Regeneration of Adsorbents. In: Sivasankar V. (eds) Surface Modified Carbons as Scavengers for Fluoride from Water. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-40686-2_4
Datta PS, Deb DL, Tyagi SK (1996) Stable isotope (18O) investigations on the processes controlling fluoride contamination of groundwater 24(1):85–96. https://doi.org/10.1016/0169-7722(96)00004-6
David LO (2009) Fluoride and environmental health: a review. Rev Environ Sci Biotechnol 8:59–79. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11157-008-9136-9

CAS Article Google Scholar
Dissanayake CB (1991) The fluoride problem in the ground water of Sri Lanka — environmental management and health. Int J Environ Stud 38(2-3):137–155. https://doi.org/10.1080/00207239108710658

CAS Article Google Scholar
FAO (2013) Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), 2013. FAO Statistical Yearbook 2013: World Food and Agriculture. pp. 289
Farooqi A (2015). Arsenic and fluoride contamination. In Arsenic and fluoride contamination. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-81-322-2298-9
Firempong C, Nsiah K, Awunyo-Vitor D, Dongsogo J (2013) Soluble fluoride levels in drinking water-a major risk factor of dental fluorosis among children in Bongo community of Ghana. Ghana Med J 47(1):16–23

Google Scholar
Freeze R, Lehr J (2009) The Fluoride wars: how a modest public health measure became America’s longest running political Melodrama. Wiley, New York
Ganyaglo SY, Gibrilla A, Teye EM, Owusu-Ansah EDGJ, Tettey S, Diabene PY, Asimah S (2019) Groundwater fluoride contamination and probabilistic health risk assessment in fluoride endemic areas of the Upper East Region, Ghana. Chemosphere 233:862–872. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2019.05.276

CAS Article Google Scholar
Gazzano E, Bergandi L, Riganti C, Aldieri E, Doublier S, Costamagna C, Bosia A, Ghigo D (2010) Fluoride effects: the two faces of janus. Curr Med Chem 17(22):2431–2441. https://doi.org/10.2174/092986710791698503

CAS Article Google Scholar
Gleeson T, Wada Y, Bierkens MF, van Beek LP (2012) Water balance of global aquifers revealed by groundwater footprint. Nature 488:197–200

CAS Article Google Scholar
Godson E (2021) Exploring The Relationship Between Diabetes Mellitus And Environmental Fluoride Contamination In Selected Areas Of Tanzania. Afribary. Retrieved from https://afribary.com/works/exploring-the-relationship-between-diabetes-mellitus-and-environmental-fluoridecontamination-in-selected-areas-of-tanzania
Goldberg M (2018) Fluoride: double-edged sword implicated in caries prevention and in fluorosis. J Cell Dev Biol 1(1):10–22

Article Google Scholar
Grace ND, Loganathan P, Hedley MJ, Wallace GC (2003) Ingestion of soil fluorine: its impact on the fluorine metabolism and status of grazing young sheep. N Z J Agric Res 46(4):279–286. https://doi.org/10.1080/00288233.2003.9513555

CAS Article Google Scholar
Gupta N, Yadav KK, Kumar V, Singh D (2013) Assessment of physicochemical properties of Yamuna River in Agra City. Int J Chem Res 5(1):528–531

CAS Google Scholar
Gupta SK, Gupta R, Chhabra S, Eskiocak S, Gupta A, Gupta R (2008) Health issues related to N pollution in water and air. Curr Sci 94(11):1469–1477
Gautam R, Bhardwaj N, Saini Y (2010) FLUORIDE ACCUMULATION BY VEGETABLES AND CROPS GROWN IN NAWA TEHSIL OF NAGAUR DISTRICT (RAJASTHAN, INDIA). Journal of Phytology 2(2):80–85
Gwala P, Andey S, Nagarnaik P, Ghosh SP, Pal P, Deshmukh P, Labhasetwar P (2014) Design and development of sustainable remediation process for mitigation of fluoride contamination in ground water and field application for domestic use. Sci Total Environ 488–489(1):588–594. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2014.01.054

CAS Article Google Scholar
Hameed A, Nazir S, Rehman JU, Ahmad N, Hussain A, Alam I, Nazir A, Tahir MB (2020) Assessment of health hazards related to contaminations of fluorides, nitrates, and nitrites in drinking water of Vehari, Punjab, Pakistan. Hum Ecol Risk Assess, 0(0) 27:1–14. https://doi.org/10.1080/10807039.2020.1858021

CAS Article Google Scholar
Herath H, Kawakami T, Tafu M (2018) The extremely high adsorption capacity of fluoride by chicken bone char (CBC) in defluoridation of drinking water in relation to its finer particle size for better human health. Healthcare 6(4):123. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare6040123

Article Google Scholar
Jacobson JS, Weinstein H, Mccune DC, Hitchcock AE (1966) The Accumulation of Fluorine by Plants. Journal of the Air Pollution Control Association 16(8):412–417. https://doi.org/10.1080/00022470.1966.10468494
Jha BM, Sinha SK (2010) Towards better management of ground water resources in India. Water Energy Int 67(1):2–18

Google Scholar
Jha SK, Singh RK, Damodaran T, Mishra VK, Sharma DK, Rai D (2013) Fluoride in Groundwater: Toxicological Exposure and Remedies. Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health Part B 16(1):52–66. https://doi.org/10.1080/10937404.2013.769420
Kabir H, Gupta AK, Tripathy S (2020) Fluoride and human health: systematic appraisal of sources, exposures, metabolism, and toxicity. Crit Rev Environ Sci Technol 50(11):1116–1193. https://doi.org/10.1080/10643389.2019.1647028

CAS Article Google Scholar
Kadam A, Wagh V, Umrikar B, Sankhua R (2020) An implication of boron and fluoride contamination and its exposure risk in groundwater resources in semi-arid region, Western India. Environ Dev Sustain 22(7):7033–7056. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-019-00527-w

Article Google Scholar
Karro E, Uppin M (2013) The occurrence and hydrochemistry of fluoride and boron in carbonate aquifer system, central and western Estonia. Environ Monit Assess 185:3735–3748

CAS Article Google Scholar
Karunanidhi D, Aravinthasamy P, Subramani T, Wu J, Srinivasamoorthy K (2019) Potential health risk assessment for fluoride and nitrate contamination in hard rock aquifers of Shanmuganadhi River basin, South India. Hum Ecol Risk Assess 25(1–2):250–270. https://doi.org/10.1080/10807039.2019.1568859

CAS Article Google Scholar
Keesari T, Sinha UK, Kamaraj P, Sharma DA (2019) Groundwater quality in a semi-arid region of India: suitability for drinking, agriculture and fluoride exposure risk. J Earth Syst Sci 128(2). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12040-018-1049-6
Khairnar MR, Dodamani AS, Jadhav HC, Naik RG, Deshmukh MA (2015) Mitigation of fluorosis – a review. J Clin Diagn Res 9(6):ZE05–ZE09. https://doi.org/10.7860/JCDR/2015/13261.6085

CAS Article Google Scholar
Kim SH, Kim K, Ko KS, Kim Y, Lee KS (2012) Co-contamination of arsenic and fluoride in the groundwater of unconsolidated aquifers under reducing environments. Chemosphere 87:851–856

CAS Article Google Scholar
Kumar M, Snow DD, Honda R, (2020a). Emerging issues in the water environment during Anthropocene. A South East Asian Perspect 1-365.
Kumar M, Goswami R, Patel AK, Srivastava M, Das N (2020b) Scenario, perspectives and mechanism of arsenic and fluoride co-occurrence in the groundwater: a review. Chemosphere 249:126126. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.126126

CAS Article Google Scholar
Kundu MC, Mandal B (2009) Agricultural activities influence nitrate and fluoride contamination in drinking groundwater of an intensively cultivated district in India. Water Air Soil Pollut 198(1–4):243–252. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11270-008-9842-5

CAS Article Google Scholar
Kundu MC, Mandal B, Hazra GC (2009) Nitrate and fluoride contamination in groundwater of an intensively managed agroecosystem: a functional relationship. Sci Total Environ 407(8):2771–2782. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2008.12.048

CAS Article Google Scholar
Li P, Qian H, Wu J, Chen J, Zhang Y, Zhang H (2014) Occurrence and hydrogeochemistry of fluoride in alluvial aquifer of Weihe River, China 71(7):3133–3145. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-013-2691-6
Maity J., Vithange M, Kumar M, Ghosh A, Mohan D, Ahmad A, Bhattacharya P (2021) Seven 21st century challenges of arsenic-fluoride contamination and remediation 12:100538
Maurer JK, Cheng MC, Boysen BG, Anderson RL (1990) Two-Year Carcinogenicity Study of Sodium Fluoride in Rats. JNCI Journal of the National Cancer Institute 82(13), 1118–1126. https://doi.org/10.1093/jnci/82.13.1118
Mishra PC, Sahu SK, Bhoi AK, Mohapatra SC (2014) Fluoride Uptake and Net Primary Productivity of Selected Crops. Open Journal of Soil Science 04(11), Article ID:51970,10 pages.
Mondal NK (2017) Effect of fluoride on photosynthesis, growth and accumulation of four widely cultivated rice (Oryza sativa L.) varieties in India. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 144(May):36–44. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2017.06.009

CAS Article Google Scholar
Mukherjee I, Singh UK (2018) Groundwater fluoride contamination, probable release, and containment mechanisms: a review on Indian context. Environ Geochem Health 40:1–43. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-018-0096-x

CAS Article Google Scholar
Murray RJ (1960) The geology of the “Zuarungu”. Ghana Press, Accra
Murtaza B, Natasha A, Shahid MM, Imran M, Shah NS, Abbas G, Naeem MA, Amjad M (2020) Compositional and health risk assessment of drinking water from health facilities of District Vehari, Pakistan. Environ Geochem Health 42(8):2425–2437. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-019-00465-6

CAS Article Google Scholar
Nagaraju A, Thejaswi A, Aitkenhead-Peterson JA (2017) Fluoride and heavy metal accumulation by vegetation in the fluoride affected area of Talupula, Anantapur district, Andhra Pradesh. J Geol Soc India 89(1):27–32. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12594-017-0555-5

CAS Article Google Scholar
Narsimha A, Sudarshan V (2017) Assessment of fluoride contamination in groundwater from Basara, Adilabad District, Telangana State, India. Appl Water Sci 7:2717–2725. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13201-016-0489-x

CAS Article Google Scholar
Nayak B, Roy MM, Das B, Pal A, Sengupta MK, Prasad De S, Chakraborti D (2009) Health effects of groundwater fluoride contamination. Clin Toxicol 47(4):292–295. https://doi.org/10.1080/15563650802660349

CAS Article Google Scholar
Ochieng JK. 2014. Aluminium and fluoride levels in soil, water and foods in Mwingi and Thika district [Doctoral dissertation].
Okibe FG, Ekanem EJ, Paul ED, Shallangwa GA, Ekwumemgbo PA, Sallau MS, Abanka OC (2010) Fluoride Content of Soil and Vegetables from Irrigation Farms on the Bank of River Galma, Zaria, Nigeria. Australian Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences 4(5):779-784
Pant S, Pant P, Bhiravamurth P (2018) Effects of fluoride on early growth of typical crop plants of India. Research report Fluoride 41(1)57–60
Prystupa J (2011) Fluorine – a current literature review. An NRC and ATSDR based review of safety standards for exposure to fluorine and fluorides. Toxicol Mech Methods 21(2):103–170. https://doi.org/10.3109/15376516.2010.542931

CAS Article Google Scholar
Rajkumar S, Murugesh S, Sivasankar V, Darchen A, Msagati TAM, Chaabane T (2019) Low-cost fluoride adsorbents prepared from a renewable biowaste: syntheses, characterization and modeling studies. Arab J Chem 12(8):3004–3017. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.arabjc.2015.06.028

CAS Article Google Scholar
Ram R, Soni V, Khastgir D (2020) Electrical and thermal conductivity of polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) – Conducting Carbon Black (CCB) composites: Validation of various theoretical models. Composites Part B: Engineering 107748. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2020.107748
Rasool A, Farooqi A, Xiao T, Ali W, Noor S, Abiola O, Ali S, Nasim W (2017) A review of global outlook on fluoride contamination in groundwater with prominence on the Pakistan current situation. Environ Geochem Health. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-017-0054-z
Rishi MS, Kaur L, Sharma S (2020) Groundwater quality appraisal for non-carcinogenic human health risks and irrigation purposes in a part of Yamuna sub-basin, India. Hum Ecol Risk Assess 26(10):2716–2736. https://doi.org/10.1080/10807039.2019.1682514

CAS Article Google Scholar
Rondano Gómez K, López Pasquali CE, González GP, Hernando PF, Martínez RMG (2020) Statistical evaluation of fluoride contamination in groundwater resources of Santiago del Estero Province, Argentina. Geosci Front S1674987120300670. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gsf.2020.02.018
Shahab S, Mustafa G, Khan I, Zahid M., Yasinzai, M., Ameer, N., Asghar, N., Ullah, I., Nadhman, A., Ahmed, A., Munir, I., Mujahid, A., Hussain, T., Ahmad, N., Ahmad, S.S., (2017) Effects of fluoride toxicity on animals, plants, and soil health: a review. Research reviewFluoride 50(4)393–408
Sharma S, Kumar V, Yadav KK, Gupta N, Verma C (2015) Long-term assessment of fly ash disposal on physico-chemical properties of soil. Int. J. Curr. Res. Biosci. Plant Biol 2:105–110
Singh G, Kumari B, Sinam G, Kriti K, N., & Mallick, S. (2018) Fluoride distribution and contamination in the water, soil and plants continuum and its remedial technologies, an Indian perspective– a review. Environ Pollut 239:95–108. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2018.04.002

CAS Article Google Scholar
Singh A, Patel AK, Kumar M (2020) Mitigating the risk of arsenic and fluoride contamination of groundwater through a multi-model framework of statistical assessment and natural remediation techniques. In: Kumar M, Snow D, Honda R (eds) Emerging issues in the water environment during Anthropocene. Springer Transactions in Civil and Environmental Engineering. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9771-5_15
Szostek R, Cie?ko Z (2017) Effect of soil contamination with fluorine on the yield and content of nitrogen forms in the biomass of crops. Environ Sci Pollut Res 24(9):8588–8601. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-017-8523-6

CAS Article Google Scholar
Tiwari AK, Singh AK, Mahato MK (2017) GIS based evaluation of fluoride contamination and assessment of fluoride exposure dose in groundwater of a district in Uttar Pradesh, India. Hum Ecol Risk Assess 23(1):56–66. https://doi.org/10.1080/10807039.2016.1220824

CAS Article Google Scholar
Tylenda CA, 2011. Toxicological profile for fluorides, hydrogen fluoride and fluorine (F). Diane Publishing, p. 383.
UNESCO, (2007). Water Portal newsletter no. 161: water-related diseases.
Weinstein LH, Davison AW (2003) Native plant species suitable as bioindicators and biomonitors for airborne fluoride. Environ Pollut 125(1):3e11

Article Google Scholar
Weinstein LH, McCune DC (1971) Effects of fluoride on agriculture. J Air Pollut Control Assoc 21(7):410–413. https://doi.org/10.1080/00022470.1971.10469550

CAS Article Google Scholar
WHO (2006) Fluoride in drinking water, World Health Organization. IWA Publication, London
Xu B, Zhang Y, Wang J (2019) Hydrogeochemistry and human health risks of groundwater fluoride in Jinhuiqu irrigation district of Wei river basin, China. Hum Ecol Risk Assess 25(1–2):230–249. https://doi.org/10.1080/10807039.2018.1530939

CAS Article Google Scholar
Yadav KK, Kumar S, Pham QB, Gupta N, Rezania S, Kamyab H, Yadav S, Vymazal J, Kumar V, Tri DQ, Talaiekhozani A, Prasad S, Reece LM, Singh N, Maurya PK, Cho J (2019) Fluoride contamination, health problems and remediation methods in Asian groundwater: a comprehensive review. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 182(June):109362. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2019.06.045

CAS Article Google Scholar
Yousefi M, Yaseri M, Nabizadeh R, Hooshmand E, Jalilzadeh M, Mahvi AH, Mohammadi AA (2018) Association of hypertension, body mass index, and waist circumference with fluoride intake; water drinking in residents of fluoride endemic areas, Iran. Biol Trace Elem Res 185(2):282–288. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12011-018-1269-2

CAS Article Google Scholar
Zhang Q, Xu P, Qian H, Yang F (2020) Hydrogeochemistry and fluoride contamination in Jiaokou Irrigation District, Central China: assessment based on multivariate statistical approach and human health risk. Sci Total Environ 741:140460. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.140460

CAS Article Google Scholar
Yadav RKr, Gautam R, Saini Y, Singh A (2012) Endemic Dental Fluorosis and Associated Risk Factors in Dausa District, Rajasthan (India). World Applied Sciences Journal 16(1):30-33

Download references

Acknowledgements

The authors are grateful to The Doon School and Department of Chemical Engineering, School of Technology, Pandit Deendayal Energy University for the permission to publish this research.

Author information

Affiliations

Rajveer S. Dhingra: The Doon School, Dehradun, India

Manan Shah: Department of Chemical Engineering, School of Technology, Pandit Deendayal Energy University, Gandhinagar, Gujarat, 382426, India