A hydrogeochemical, multivariate statistical, and human health risk assessment perspective

Abstract

In arid and semiarid regions, groundwater is required for the drinking, agriculture, and industrial activities due to scarcity of surface water. Groundwater contaminated with high concentrations of fluoride and nitrate can severely affect human health in these regions. Twenty-eight groundwater samples from rural habitations of Jhunjhunu district, Rajasthan, India, were collected in March 2018 and subjected to analysis for water quality parameters. Fluoride and nitrate concentrations in groundwater varied from 0 to 5.74 mg/L and 10.22–519.64 mg/L, respectively. Nitrate content of about 86% samples and fluoride content of about 54% exceeded the permissible limit of Bureau of Indian Standards (IS:10,500) as well as World Health Organization standards. All groundwater samples belonged to poor to unfit drinking water quality index. Principle component analysis elucidates the anthropogenic contribution to high nitrate concentrations observed in this area. Noncarcinogenic human health risk evaluated from high nitrate and fluoride in drinking water for children, men, and women points to the fact that noncarcinogenic risk is exceeding the allowable limit to human health. The predominating hydrochemical facies in the area is Na+–HCO3–Cl followed by Na+–Mg2+–HCO3–Cl. The Gibbs plot and bivariate ionic cross-plots suggest the noncarbonate weathering (rock dominance), evaporation dominance, and ion exchange process to be the predominating geochemical mechanisms governing the evolution of groundwater hydrogeochemistry. Giggenbach diagram shows the immature character, i.e., incomplete equilibration of the groundwater.

References

  1. Adimalla, N. (2020). Spatial distribution, exposure, and potential health risk assessment from nitrate in drinking water from semi-arid region of South India. Human and Ecological Risk Assessment: An International Journal, 26, 310–334. https://doi.org/10.1080/10807039.2018.1508329

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar

  2. Adimalla, N., & Li, P. (2019). Occurrence, health risks, and geochemical mechanisms of fluoride and nitrate in groundwater of the rock-dominant semi-arid region, Telangana State, India. Human and Ecological Risk Assessment: An International Journal. https://doi.org/10.1080/10807039.2018.1480353

    Article  Google Scholar

  3. Adimalla, N., & Wu, J. (2019). Groundwater quality and associated health risks in a semi-arid region of south India: Implication to sustainable groundwater management. Human and Ecological Risk Assessment: An International Journal, 25, 191–216. https://doi.org/10.1080/10807039.2018.1546550

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar

  4. Adimalla, N., Li, P., & Venkatayogi, S. (2018). Hydrogeochemical evaluation of groundwater quality for drinking and irrigation purposes and integrated interpretation with water quality index studies. Environmental Processes, 5, 363–383. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40710-018-0297-4

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar

  5. Adimalla, N., Vasa, S. K., & Li, P. (2018). Evaluation of groundwater quality, Peddavagu in central Telangana (PCT), South India: An insight of controlling factors of fluoride enrichment. Modeling Earth System and Environment, 4, 841–852.

    Article  Google Scholar

  6. Adimalla, N., Li, P., & Qian, H. (2019). Evaluation of groundwater contamination for fluoride and nitrate in semi-arid region of Nirmal Province, South India: A special emphasis on human health risk assessment (HHRA). Human and Ecological Risk Assessment: An International Journal, 25, 1107–1124. https://doi.org/10.1080/10807039.2018.1460579

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar

  7. Adimalla, N., Marsetty, S. K., & Xu, P. (2019). Assessing groundwater quality and health risks of fluoride pollution in the Shasler Vagu (SV) watershed of Nalgonda, India. Human and Ecological Risk Assessment: An International Journal. https://doi.org/10.1080/10807039.2019.1594154

    Article  Google Scholar

  8. Ahada, C. P., & Suthar, S. (2017). Hydrochemistry of groundwater in North Rajasthan, India: Chemical and multivariate analysis. Environmental Earth Science, 76(5), 203.

    Article  Google Scholar

  9. Ahada, C. P. S., & Suthar, S. (2018). Groundwater nitrate contamination and associated human health risk assessment in southern districts of Punjab, India. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 25, 25336–25347. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-018-2581-2

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar

  10. Ali, S., Thakur, S. K., Sarkar, A., & Shekhar, S. (2016). Worldwide contamination of water by fluoride. Environmental Chemistry Letters, 14, 291–315. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10311-016-0563-5

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar

  11. Ali, S., Shekhar, S., Bhattacharya, P., Verma, V., Chandresekhar, T., & Chandrashekhar, A. K. (2018). Elevated fluoride in groundwater of Siwani Block, Western Haryana, India: A potential concern for sustainable water supplies for drinking and irrigation. Groundwater for Sustainable Development, 7, 410–420. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gsd.2018.05.008

    Article  Google Scholar

  12. Ali, S., Fakhri, Y., Golbini, M., Thakur, S. K., Alinejad, A., Parseh, I., Shekhar, S., & Bhattacharya, P. (2019). Concentration of fluoride in groundwater of India: A systematic review, meta-analysis and risk assessment. Groundwater for Sustainable Development. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gsd.2019.100224

    Article  Google Scholar

  13. APHA. (2017). Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater (23rd ed.). American Public Health Association/American Water Works Association/ Water Environment Federation.

  14. Arif, M., Hussain, I., Hussain, J., Sharma, S., & Kumar, S. (2012). Fluoride in the drinking water of Nagaur Tehsil of Nagaur District, Rajasthan, India. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 88, 870–875. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00128-012-0572-4

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar

  15. Barakat, A., Hilali, A., & Baghdadi, M. E. (2019). Assessment of shallow groundwater quality and its suitability for drinking purpose near the Béni- Mellal wastewater treatment lagoon (Morocco). Human and Ecological Risk Assessment: An International Journal. https://doi.org/10.1080/10807039.2019.1584029

    Article  Google Scholar

  16. Barzegar, R., Asghari, M. A., Najib, M., Kazemian, N., & Adamowski, J. (2016). Characterization of hydrogeologic properties of the Tabriz plain multi-layer aquifer system, NW Iran. Arabian Journal of Geosciences, 9, 147.

    Article  Google Scholar

  17. Batabyal, A. K., & Gupta, S. (2017). Fluoride-contaminated groundwater of Birbhum district, West Bengal, India: interpretation of drinking and irrigation suitability and major geochemical processes using principal component analysis. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 189, 369. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-017-6041-0

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar

  18. Bikundia, D. S., & Mohan, D. (2014). Major ion chemistry of groundwater at the Khoda village Gaziabad, India. Sustainability of Water Quality and Ecology, 3, 133–150.

    Article  Google Scholar

  19. BIS. (2012). Bureau of Indian standards specification for drinking water IS: 10500: 91. Bureau of Indian standards.

  20. Brindha, K., Jagadeshan, G., Kalpana, L., & Elango, L. (2016). Fluoride in weathered rock aquifers of southern India: Managed aquifer recharge for mitigation. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 23(9), 8302–8316.

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar

  21. Brindha, K., Pavelic, P., Sotoukee, T., Douangsavanh, S., & Elango, L. (2017). Geochemical characteristics and groundwater quality in the Vientiane plain, Laos. Exposure and Health, 9, 89–104. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12403-016-0224-8

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar

  22. Brown, R.M., McCleiland, N.J., Deiniger, R.A., & O’Connor, M.F.A. (1972). Water quality index – crossing the physical barrier, Jenkis, S. H. (Eds.) Proceedings in International Conference on water pollution Research Jerusalem 6. (pp. 787–797).

  23. CGWB (2008). Groundwater brochure, Jhunjhunu district, Western region Jaipur, Central Ground Water Board, Ministry of Water Resources, Government of India.

  24. CGWB (2018). Groundwater quality in shallow aquifers in India. Central Ground Water Board, Ministry of Water Resources RD and GR, Government of India.

  25. Chaudhary, V., & Satheeshkumar, S. (2018). Assessment of groundwater quality for drinking and irrigation purposes in arid areas of Rajasthan, India. Applied Water Science, 8, 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13201-018-0865-9

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar

  26. Cortes, J. E., Muñoz, L. F., Gonzalez, C. A., Niño, J. E., Polo, A., Suspes, A., Siachoque, S. C., Hernández, A., & Trujillo, H. (2016). Hydrogeochemistry of the formation waters in the San Francisco field, UMV basin, Colombia–A multivariate statistical approach. Journal of Hydrology, 539, 113–124. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2016.05.010

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar

  27. Coyte, R. M., Singh, A., Furst, K. E., Mitch, W. A., & Vengosh, A. (2019). Co-occurrence of geogenic and anthropogenic contaminants in groundwater from Rajasthan, India. Science of the Total Environment, 688, 1216–1227.

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar

  28. USEPA (1989). Risk Assessment Guidance for Superfund, vol 1, Human health evaluation manual (Part A). Office of Emergency and Remedial Response, Washington, DC, USA.

  29. CWC (2019). Water and related statistics. Central Water Commission, Department of Water Resources, RD and GR, Ministry of Jal Shakti, Government of India, New Delhi, India.

  30. Doneen, L. D. (1964). Notes on water quality in agriculture, Published as a water science and Engineering Paper 4001. University of California.

  31. Durfor, C. N., & Becker, E. (1964). Public water supplies of the 100 largest cities in the United States, 1962. US Geological Survey Water Supply Paper, 1812, 1–364. https://doi.org/10.3133/wsp1812.

  32. Eaton, F. M. (1950). Significance of carbonates in irrigation waters. Soil Science, 69, 123–133.

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar

  33. Freeze, R. A., & Cherry, J. A. (1979). Groundwater. Prentice-Hall.

  34. Gaofeng, Z., Yonghong, S., Chunlin, H., Qi, F., & Zhiguang, L. (2010). Hydrogeochemical processes in the groundwater environment of Heihe River Basin, northwest China. Environmental Earth Science, 60, 139–153. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-009-0175-5

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar

  35. Gautam, R., Bhardwaj, N., & Saini, Y. (2011). Study of fluoride content in groundwater of Nawa Tehsil in Nagaur, Rajasthan. Journal of Environmental Biology, 32, 85–89.

    CAS  Google Scholar

  36. IARC (1982). Monographs on the Evaluation of the Carcinogenic Risk of Chemicals to Humans, V27, p. 242. World Health Organization, International Agency for Research on Cancer, Geneva. Retrieved from, http://monographs.iarc.fr/ENG/Classification/index.php

  37. Gibbs, R. J. (1970). Mechanisms controlling world water chemistry. Science, 170, 1088–1090. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.170.3962.1088

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar

  38. Giggenbach, W. F. (1988). Geothermal solute equilibria. Derivation of Na-K-Mg-Ca geoindicators. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 52(12), 2749–2765.

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar

  39. Gopal, R., Bhargava, T. N., Ghosh, P. K., & Rai, S. (1983). Fluoride and nitrate levels in ground waters of arid districts of Rajasthan, India. Annals Arid Zone, 22(1), 87–93.

    CAS  Google Scholar

  40. Guo, Q., Wang, Y., Ma, T., & Ma, R. (2007). Geochemical processes controlling the elevated fluoride concentrations in groundwaters of the Taiyuan Basin, Northern China. Journal of Geochemical Explorations, 93, 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gexplo.2006.07.001

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar

  41. Gupta, S.K., & Gupta, I.C. (1987). Management of saline soils and water New Delhi: Oxford and IBM Publishing Corporation, 399.

  42. Hussain, J., Hussain, I., & Sharma, K. C. (2010). Fluoride and health hazards: Community perception in a fluorotic area of central Rajasthan (India): An arid environment. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 162, 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-009-0771-6

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar

  43. Hussain, I., Arif, M., & Hussain, J. (2011). Fluoride contamination in drinking water in rural habitations of Central Rajasthan, India. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 184(8), 5151–5158. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-011-2329-7

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar

  44. Jankowski, J., & Acworth, R. L. (1997). Impact of debris-flow deposits on hy-drogeochemical processes and the development of dry land salinity in the Yass River catchment, New South Wales, Australia. Hydrogeology Journal, 5, 71–88.

    Article  Google Scholar

  45. Jankowski, J., Acworth, R.I., & Shekarforoush, S. (1998). Reverse ion exchange in deeply weathered porphyritic dacite fractured aquifer system, Yass, New South Wales, Australia. In: Arehart GB, Hulston JR (Eds.) Proceedings of 9th international symposium on water–rock interaction. Taupo, New Zealand, 30 March–April 1998. Balkema, Rotterdam, p. 243–246.

  46. Jilali, A., Chamrar, A., & El Haddar, A. (2018). Hydrochemistry and geothermometry of thermal water in northeastern Morocco. Geothermal Energy, 6, 9. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40517-018-0095-2

    Article  Google Scholar

  47. Joshi, A., & Seth, G. (2011). Hydrochemical profile for assessing the groundwater quality of Sambhar lake City and its adjoining area. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 174, 547–554. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-010-1477-5

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar

  48. Karim, Z. (2011). Risk assessment of dissolved trace metals in drinking water of Karachi, Pakistan. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 86, 676–678.

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar

  49. Kashyap, C. A., Ghosh, A., Singh, S., Ali, S., Singh, H. K., Chandrasekhar, T., & Chandrasekharam, D. (2020). Distribution, genesis and geochemical modeling of fluoride in the water of tribal area of Bijapur district, Chhattisgarh, central India. Groundwater for Sustainable Development, 11, 100403.

    Article  Google Scholar

  50. Katz, B. G., Tyler, B. C., Thomas, D. B., & Davis, J. H. (1997). Use of chemical and isotopic tracers to characterize the interactions between groundwater and surface water in mantled karst. Ground Water, 35(6), 014–1028.

    Article  Google Scholar

  51. Kavcar, P., Sofuoglu, A., & Sofuoglu, S. C. (2009). A health risk assessment for exposure to trace metals via drinking water ingestion pathway. International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health, 212, 216–227.

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar

  52. Kelly, W. P. (1940). Permissible composition and concentration of irrigated waters. Proceedings of American Society of Civil Engineers, 66, 607–613.

    Google Scholar

  53. Kelly, W. P. (1963). Use of saline irrigation water. Soil Science, 95(4), 355–379.

    Google Scholar

  54. Kortatsi, B. K., Tay, C. K., Anornu, G., Hayford, E., & Dartey, G. A. (2008). Hydrogeochemical evaluation of groundwater in the lower Offin basin, Ghana. Environmental Geology, 53(8), 1651–1662.

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar

  55. Kumari, S., Singh, A. K., Verma, A. K., & Yaduvanshi, N. P. S. (2014). Assessment and spatial distribution of groundwater quality in industrial areas of Ghaziabad, India. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 186, 501–514.

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar

  56. Kumar, P., Singh, C. K., Saraswat, C., Mistra, B., & Sharma, T. (2017). Evaluation of aqueous geochemistry of fluoride enriched groundwater: A case study of the Patan district, Gujarat, Western India. Water Science, 31, 215–229.

    Article  Google Scholar

  57. Li, P., & Qian, H. (2018). Water resources research to support a sustainable China. International Journal of Water Resources and Development, 34(3), 327–336. https://doi.org/10.1080/07900627.2018.1452723

    Article  Google Scholar

  58. Mahaqi, A., Moheghi, M. M., Mehiqi, M., & Moheghy, M. A. (2018). Hydrogeochemical characteristics and groundwater quality assessment for drinking and irrigation purposes in the Mazar-i-Sharif city North Afghanistan. Applied Water Science, 8, 133. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13201-018-0768-9

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar

  59. Mayo, A. L., & Loucks, M. D. (1995). Solute and isotopic geochemistry and ground water flow in the central Wasatch Range, Utah. Journal of Hydrology, 172, 31–59. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-1694(95)02748-E

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar

  60. McLean, W., & Jankowski, J. (2000). Groundwater quality and sustainability in an alluvial aquifer, Australia. In: Sililo et al (Ed.) Proceedeings of the XXX IAH congress on groundwater: past achievements and future challenges Cape Town South Africa 26th November–1st December 2000. A. A. Balkema, Rotterdam.

  61. Meenakshi, Garg, V. K., Kavita, Renuka, & Malik, A. (2004). Groundwater quality in some villages of Haryana, India: focus on fluoride and fluorosis. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 106, 85–97.

    Article  Google Scholar

  62. Meybeck, M. (1987). Global chemical weathering of surficial rocks estimated from river dissolved leads. American Journal of Science, 287, 401–428.

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar

  63. Muralidharan, D., Nair, A. P., & Sathyanarayana, U. (2002). Fluoride in shallow aquifers in Rajgarh Tehsil of Churu District, Rajasthan – an arid environment. Current Science, 83(6), 699–702.

    CAS  Google Scholar

  64. Nair, K., & Augustine, L. F. (2018). Country-specific nutrient requirements and recommended dietary allowances for Indians: Current status and future directions. Indian Journal of Medical Research, 148(5), 522–530. https://doi.org/10.4103/ijmr.IJMR_1762_18

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar

  65. Narsimha, A., & Rajitha, S. (2018). Spatial distribution and seasonal variation in fluoride enrichment in groundwater and its associated human health risk assessment in Telangana State, South India. Human and Ecological Risk Assessment: An International Journal, 24, 2119–2132. https://doi.org/10.1080/10807039.2018.1438176

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar

  66. Narsimha, A., & Sudarshan, V. (2018). Drinking water pollution with respective of fluoride in the semi-arid region of Basara, Nirmal district, Telangana State, India. Data in Brief, 16, 752–757. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dib.2017.11.087

    Article  Google Scholar

  67. Narsimha, A., Vasa, S. K., & Li, P. (2018). Evaluation of groundwater quality, Peddavagu in Central Telangana (PCT), South India: An insight of controlling factors of fluoride enrichment. Modeling Earth System and Environment, 4(2), 841–852. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40808-018-0443-z

    Article  Google Scholar

  68. NIN-ICMR (2011). Dietary guidelines for Indians -A Manual. National Institute of Nutrition – Indian Council of Medical Research.

  69. NITI Aayog (2020). Government of India. Retrieved July 01, 2020 from, https://niti.gov.in/content/life-expectancy.

  70. Paliwal, K.V. (1972). Irrigation with saline water, Monogram no. 2 (New series). New Delhi, IARI, 198.

  71. Piper, A. M. (1944). A graphic procedure in the geochemical interpretation of water analyses. Transactions American Geophysical Union, 25, 14–928.

    Article  Google Scholar

  72. Rajmohan, N., & Elango, L. (2004). Identification and evolution of hydrogeochemical processes in the groundwater environment in an area of the Palar and Cheyyar River Basins, Southern India. Environmental Geology, 46, 47–61. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00254-004-1012-5

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar

  73. Richards, L. A. (1954a). Diagnosis and improvement of saline and alkali soils. Soil Science, 78(2), 154.

    Article  Google Scholar

  74. Richards, L. A. (1954b). Diagnosis and improvement of saline and alkali soils. Agriculture Handbook, 60, 210–220.

    Google Scholar

  75. Rishi, M. S., Kaur, L., & Sharma, S. (2019). Groundwater quality appraisal for non- carcinogenic human health risks and irrigation purposes in a part of Yamuna sub-basin, India. Human and Ecological Risk Assessment: An International Journal. https://doi.org/10.1080/10807039.2019.1682514

    Article  Google Scholar

  76. Saini, P., Khan, S., Baunthiyal, M., & Sharma, V. (2013). Mapping of fluoride endemic area and assessment of F?1 accumulation in soil and vegetation. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 185, 2001–2008. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-012-2683-0

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar

  77. Schoeller, H. (1967). Qualitative evaluation of groundwater resources. In H. Schoeller (Ed.), Methods and techniques of groundwater investigation and development Water Resource Series (pp. 44–52). Paris: UNESCO.

    Google Scholar

  78. Selvakumar, S., Chandrasekar, N., & Kumar, G. (2017). Hydrogeochemical characteristics and groundwater contamination in the rapid urban development areas of Coimbatore, India. Water Resources and Industry, 17, 26–33.

    Article  Google Scholar

  79. Shalu, Punia, S., & Malik, A. (2015). Hydrochemistry and water quality assessment of groundwater of Bhiwani district, Haryana, India. Pollution Research, 34, 21–32.

    Google Scholar

  80. Singh, C. K., & Mukherjee, S. (2015). Aqueous geochemistry of fluoride enriched groundwater in arid part of Western India. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 22, 2668–2678. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-014-3504-5

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar

  81. Singh, K. P., Malik, A., & Sinha, S. (2005). Water quality assessment and apportionment of pollution sources of Gomati river (India) using multivariate statistical techniques—a case study. Analytica Chimica Acta, 538, 355–374.

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar

  82. Singh, K. P., Malik, A., Mohan, D., Singh, V. K., & Sinha, S. (2006). Evaluation of groundwater quality in northern Indo-gangetic alluvium region. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 112, 211–230.

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar

  83. Singh, C. K., Kumari, R., Singh, R. P., Shashtri, S., Kamal, V., & Mukherjee, S. (2011). Geochemical modeling of high fluoride concentration in groundwater of Pokhran area of Rajasthan, India. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 86, 152–158. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00128-011-0192-4

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar

  84. Singh, C. K., Shashtri, S., & Mukherjee, S. (2011). Integrating multivariate statistical analysis with GIS for geochemical assessment of groundwater quality in Shiwaliks of Punjab, India. Environmental Earth Science, 62, 1387–1405. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-010-0625-0

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar

  85. Singh, V. K., Bikundia, D. S., Sarswat, A., & Mohan, D. (2012). Groundwater quality assessment in village Lutfullapur Nawada, Loni, District Ghaziabad, Uttar Pradesh, India. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 184, 4473–4488.

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar

  86. Singh, G., Rishi, M. S., Herojeet, R., Kaur, L., & Sharma, K. (2019). Evaluation of groundwater quality and human health risks from fluoride and nitrate in semi-arid region of northern India. Environmental Geochemistry and Health. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-019-00449-6

    Article  Google Scholar

  87. Singh, G., Rishi, M. S., Herojeet, R., & Kaur, L. (2020). Multivariate analysis and geochemical signatures of groundwater in the agricultural dominated taluks of Jalandhar district, Punjab, India. Journal of Geochemical Explorations. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gexplo.2019.106395

    Article  Google Scholar

  88. Soleimani, H., Abbasnia, A., Youselfi, M., Mohammadi, A. A., & Khorasgani, F. C. (2018). Data on assessment of groundwater quality for drinking and irrigation in rural area Sarpol-e Zahab city, Kermanshah province, Iran. Data in Brief, 17, 148–156.

    Article  Google Scholar

  89. Soltan, M. E. (1998). Characterization, classification, and evaluation of some groundwater samples in Upper Egypt. Chemosphere, 37, 735–745.

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar

  90. Stallard, R. F., & Edmond, J. M. (1983). Geochemistry of the Amazon River—the influence of the geology and weathering environment on the dissolved load. Journal of Geophysical Research, 88, 9671–9688. https://doi.org/10.1029/jc088ic14p09671

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar

  91. Subba Rao, N. (2008). Factors controlling the salinity in groundwater in parts of Guntur district, Andhra Pradesh, India. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 138, 327–341. https://doi.org/10.1007/s1066

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar

  92. Subba Rao, N. (2011). High-fluoride groundwater. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 176, 637–645.

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar

  93. Subba Rao, N., Devadas, J. D., & Srinivasa Rao, K. V. (2006). Interpretation of groundwater quality using principal component analysis from Anantapur district, Andhra Pradesh India. Environmental Geoscience, 13(4), 239–259.

    Article  Google Scholar

  94. Subba Rao, N., Srihari, C., Spandana, B. D., Sravanthi, M., Kamalesh, T., & Jayadeep, V. A. (2019). Comprehensive understanding of groundwater quality and hydrogeochemistry for the sustainable development of suburban area of Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh, India. Human and Ecological Risk Assessment: An International Journal, 25, 52–80. https://doi.org/10.1080/10807039.2019.1571403

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar

  95. Subba Rao, N. S., Ravindra, B., & Wu, J. (2020). Geochemical and health risk evaluation of fluoride rich groundwater in Sattenapalle Region, Guntur district, Andhra Pradesh, India. Human and Ecological Risk Assessment: An International Journal. https://doi.org/10.1080/10807039.2020.1741338

    Article  Google Scholar

  96. Suthar, S., Garg, V. K., Jangir, S., Kaur, S., Goswami, N., & Singh, S. (2008). Fluoride contamination in drinking water in rural habitations of Northern Rajasthan, India. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 145(1–3), 1–6.

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar

  97. Suthar, S., Bishnoi, P., Singh, S., Mutiyar, P. K., Nema, A. K., & Patil, N. S. (2009). Nitrate contamination in groundwater of some rural areas of Rajasthan, India. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 171(1–3), 189–199.

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar

  98. Szabolcs, I., & Darab, C. (1964). The influence of irrigation water of high sodium carbonate Content on soils, In I. Szabolics (Ed.), Proceeding of 8th International Congress Soil Science Sodics, 2:803–812.

  99. Tiwari, T. N., & Mishra, M. (1985). A preliminary assignment of water quality index of major Indian rivers. Indian Journal of Environmental Protection, 5, 276–279.

    CAS  Google Scholar

  100. Todd, D. K. (1980). Groundwater Hydrology (2nd ed.). Wiley.

  101. United States Salinity Laboratory Staff (1954). Diagnosis and Improvement of Saline and Alkali Soils. Revised in 1954. Handbook, 60. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. 160.

  102. USEPA. (2006). USEPA region III Risk-based concentration table: technical background information. United States Environmental protection Agency.

  103. USEPA (2017). Regional screening levels (rsls)–generic tables; Retrieved May 10, 2020, from May 10, 2020]. https://www.epa.gov/risk/regional-screening-levels-rsls-generic-tables.

  104. USEPA (2020). Regional screening levels (RSLs)–generic tables; Retrieved November 20, 2020 from, https://www.epa.gov/risk/regional-screening-levels-rsls-generic-tables.

  105. Wagh, V. M., Panaskar, D. B., Mukate, S. V., & Nashik, R. B. (2020). Nitrate associated health risks from groundwater of Kadava River Basin Nashik, Maharashtra, India. Human and Ecological Risk Assessment: An International Journal, 26, 654–672. https://doi.org/10.1080/10807039.2018.1528861

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar

  106. Wanda, E., Monjerezi, M., Mwatseteza, J. F., & Kazembe, L. N. (2011). Hydro-geochemical appraisal of groundwater quality from weathered basement aquifers in Northern Malawi. Physics and Chemistry of the Earth A/B/C, 36(14–15), 1197–1207.

    Article  Google Scholar

  107. USEPA (2014). Human Health Evaluation Manual, Supplemental Guidance: Update of Standard Default Exposure Factors-OSWER Directive 9200.1–120, p. 6. United States Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC, USA.

  108. WHO (2017). Guidelines for drinking-water quality: fourth edition incorporating the first Addendum. ISBN 978-92-4-154995-0. http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/publica-tions/drinking-waterquality-guidelines-4-including-1st-addendum/en/

  109. Wilcox, L.V. (1948). The quality of water for irrigation use (No. 170282). United States Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service, US Department of Agricultural Technical Bulletin, Washington.

  110. Wilcox, L.V. (1955). Classification and use of irrigation waters, U.S. Geological Survey, Department of Agriculture, Washington D.C. Circular No. 969: 19.